Marmot

   Marmots include a number of rodents belonging to one group (genus Marmota) in the squirrel family. The woodchuck (also called ground hog), is about two feet long and has yellowish brown fur with white on its snout. It weighs over five pounds. It eats plant greens.
   The yellow-bellied marmol lives in the western mountains of the United States where it is called the rockchuck. It is larger and heavier than the woodchuck. The hoary marmol also lives in the west. Its fur coat is silvery gray. When danger is approaching, it will let out a noise which sounds like a whistle.

Vicuña

   The vicuña (Vicugna vicugna) is a mammal native of the most elevated localities of Bolivia and northern Chile. It is very wild, and has resisted all attempts to reduce it to a state of domestication. It is the smallest species of the genus, standing only about 30 inches at the shoulder. Its coloration is nearly uniform lion-brown, tinged with yellow on the back and fading into gray on the abdomen. The soft, silky fur of the vicuña is used for making delicate fabrics.

Vicuña

Firefly facts

• A firefly (family Lampyridae), also called lightning bug, is any of a large number of nocturnal beetles that produce short flashes of yellow, blue, or green light.
• Fireflies produce a "cold light", with no infrared or ultraviolet frequencies.
• Fireflies have long fíat bodies ranging in length from ½ to ¾ of an inch.
• About two-thousand species of firefly are found in temperate and tropical environments.

Mongoose - some facts

• The mongoose (Herpestidae) is a small, meat-eating (carnivorous) mammal.
• The mongoose has a slender body, a long tail, and short legs.
• The English word mongoose is derived from the Marathi name mangus (मंगूस) 
• The mongoose is related to the civet but does not have the scent glands. It is most famous for its lightening-like speed which enables the fierce little animal to attack and kill rodents, vermin, and even the deadly cobra.
• There are 20 species of mongoose.
• The mongoose is native to Spain, Africa and southeastern Asia. Some are up to 40 inches long. They give birth to one to four babies annually.
• Mongooses live in some Caribbean and Hawaiian islands, where they are an introduced species.
• About 1872, the mongoose was taken to Hawaii to get rid of rodents and poisonous snakes. But the mongoose multiplied so rapidly that it became a pest. Since 1902 it has been illegal to bring them into United States territories.

Mongoose

BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS

   There are more than a million kinds of insects. Thousands of these kinds of insects are moths or butterflies.
   Moths and butterflies have six legs. They would not be insects if they did not. Their bodies are divided into three regions, as the bodies of all insects are. They have feelers, as all insects do. But in one way moths and butterflies are different from all other insects. They have scales on their wings. These scales lap over one another like the shingles on a roof. It is not always easy to tell whether a "scale-wing" is a moth or a butterfly. Here are a few helps:
   Butterflies usually fly in the daytime. They flit about in our gardens on sunny summer days. Moths as a rule fly at night.
   Butterflies usually hold their wings up when they are resting. Moths usually hold theirs flat or in a rooflike position.
   The body of a butterfly is slender. As a rule the body of a moth is plump. It often looks furry.
The feelers are the best help of all. A butterfly has slender feelers with a thicker part, or club, at the end. A moth's feelers may be like threads, or they may be like tiny feathers.

Caroline Herschel

   German astronomer Caroline Lucretia Herschel (1750-1848) left home in 1772 and joined her brother, organist, choirmaster, and amateur astronomer William Herschel, in England. Herschel trained to become a professional singer while learning mathematics from her brother. She soon began to assist William in his astronomical studies by polishing and grinding mirrors for his telescope and copying his notes. The siblings found themselves dedicating more and more of their time to astronomy and less to music. In 1781, following William's discovery of the planet Uranus, the brother-and-sister team began receiving a yearly salary from King George III. This salary allowed them to become full-time astronomers.
   Eventually Herschel began making her own contributions to astronomy. In 1783 she discovered three new nebulae (clouds of gas and dust), and over the next decade she discovered eight comets. In 1787 King George decided to pay Herschel her own salary, something very rare for a woman then. Herschel went on to make a complete index of the star catalogue created by John Flamsteed, the first Astronomer Royal, England's honorary chief-astronomer. When her brother William died in 1822, Herschel returned to Hanover, Germany, where she lived to the age of ninety-seven. She continued working with William's son, astronomer John Herschel, for whom she put together a new catalogue of nebulae. Herschel was one of the first two women granted membership in the Royal Society, England's elite science organization. She won the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society at age seventy-eight; was elected to the Royal Irish Academy at eighty-six; and won the King of Prussia's Gold Medal for Science at age ninety-six.

What is imagination?

   Imagination is a change in consciousness due to attending to experiences not present to the senses, but which have been present at some previous time. Imagination and remembering are alike in that both process-es depend upon revival of past experiences, but in remembering there is present a more or less definite recognition of the experience as something which has been present in consciousness before. The simplest type of imagination reproduces past experiences without much rearrangement or change of details. The train of images passes through the mind, each one serving as a suggestion to call up the one that follows; all are commonplace and differ from the original experience only in being less accurate and less vivid. All normal human minds are capable of this kind of imagining.

What is ice?

   Ice is water in a solid state. Under ordinary conditions, water changes to ice at 32 °F. and 0 °C. In freezing, the molecules arrange themselves in hexagonal crystals, as may be seen by the examination of a snowflake. When exposed to the heat of the sun, ice not infrequently falls into six-sided needles or columns. One hundred volumes of water make 109 volumes of ice. Ice is lighter than water and floats, therefore, on its surface, protecting ponds and lakes from being frozen to a greater depth. Ice is far from being rigid. In fact, it is so fluid-like that on the slopes of mountains it runs down slowly, forming oftentimes enormous streams of ice, called glaciers. If a long slab of ice be supported at the two ends, the center will curve downward. A slight jar facilitates the formation of ice. If perfectly quiet, water will cool several degrees below the freezing point without solidifying; but a jar, which, no doubt, facilitates the rearrangement of the mole­cules, will turn it suddenly into ice. Under pressure sufficient to prevent expansion, water may be cooled far below the freezing point and yet remain a liquid. Sea-water freezes at about 32 °F. The ice in some way drives down or excludes nearly all of the salt. The people of the Mediterranean early learned the use of ice in cool-in drinks. They depended largely, however, on snow brought from the Alps and other mountain peaks.

What is rhythm?

   Rhythm is the natural swing felt in dancing, music, and language. The word comes from the Greek word rhythmos, meaning measured motion. In dancing, rhythmic patterns and variations are created by physical motions of shorter or longer duration and of greater or lesser emphasis. In music, rhythmic figures and phrases come from an arrangement of tones, organized according to their duration and stresses, or accents. In lan­guage, rhythm is the rise and fall of sounds according to syllables, vocal inflections, physical speech accents, and pauses. Modern English and German are of the lan­guage type that has physically stressed, or accented, syllables. Greek and Latin are of the language type that uses long and short syllables or inflections to give stress. In poetry, both types organize syllables into rhythmic patterns called feet, which are grouped into many differ­ent poetic forms.
   In all the arts, rhythm is the element that provides a universal means of communication.

What does Hypnotism mean?

   Long ago and in many different places the discovery was made that people can be hypnotized. A hypnotized person looks very much like a person who is walking in his sleep. He says and does what the person who hypnotized him tells him to. He may say ridiculous things he would not think of saying ordinarily. He may perform feats that he could not perform if he were not hypnotized. When a person comes out of his trance he may not remember at all what he has said or done.
   A hypnotized person believes almost everything he is told. He believes that he hears sounds that he is told he is hearing. He believes he can see strange objects that he is told about.
   While a person is hypnotized he may be told to do something at some time in the future. When the time comes he does what he was told to do without knowing why.
   Being hypnotized does not mean losing one's will power completely. Most students of hypnotism believe that a person will do nothing which is opposed to his deeply felt ideas of right and wrong.
   Anyone trained to hypnotize others is called a hypnotist. A hypnotist usually seats his patient in a darkened room. In a calm voice the hypnotist tells his patient over and over to relax and fall asleep. But not everyone can be hypnotized. And no one can be hypnotized unless he is willing.
   Hypnotists sometimes give shows. They take people from the audience who offer to take part and hypnotize them. The rest of the audience has fun watching. But hyp­notism is not just fun. Doctors use it in helping people who are ill. Mesmerism is an old name for hypnotism. "Mesmerism" comes from the name of a doctor, Franz Mesmer, who used hypnotism nearly 200 years ago in treating his patients.

What is a Hyperborean?

   In Greek mythology, Hyperborean was one who lived beyond Boreas, or the North Wind. According to Greek legend, the Hyperboreans lived so far north that they were beyond the cold winds of winter and enjoyed a fruitful land of perpetual sunshine. They were free from care, disease, and war. Life lasted for 1,000 years, and was spent in constant enjoyment and the worship of Apollo. After the age of legend passed away the Greeks gave the name to the barbarians living north of them. In modern usage, the term is equivalent to Arctic. The Eskimos, for instance, are spoken of as a hyperborean race.

What is The Ring of the Nibelung?

   The Ring of the Nibelung is a group of four operas by Richard Wagner. The cycle consists of: Das Rheingold, Die Walküre, Siegfried, and Die Gotterdammerung. The plot of these operas deals with both men and gods, and is based on Scandinavian and Germanic mythology and on ancient legends, especially material in several poems in the Eider (Poetic) Edda, and in the Volsunga Saga. The operas are not only highly dramatic, but also symbolic in theme.
   The leading characters include Brünnhilde, a warrior maiden and daughter of Wotan (Odin), chief of the ancient gods, and Siegfried, a fearless hero. The story centers around the struggle for the possession of a hoard of gold. A Nibelung, or dwarf, steals the gold from the Rhine maidens, and makes a ring from part of the hoard. Wotan steals the treasure from the Nibelung and gives it into the custody of Fafnir, a giant turned into a dragon. The angry Nibelung puts a curse of death on the ring.
   Siegfried slays Fafnir and gains the treasure. He also succeeds in rescuing Brünnhilde from her mountain prison, and the two fall in love. But Gunther, a half-brother of one of the Nibelungs, gives Siegfried a magic potion that makes him forget Brünnhilde. Later Siegfried's enemies kill him, and Brünnhilde rides her horse into the funeral pyre. In the end, the gold is returned to the Rhine maidens.

The ungainly hippopotamus

   The word "hippopotamus" comes from two Greek words meaning "river horse." The animal is a river-dweller, indeed; but the "horse" part of the name is not particularly appropriate, because the hippo­potamus is more closely allied to the hog family. There are two living species: the common hippopotamus and the pigmy, or Liberian, variety. These animals belong to the family of the Hippopotamidae.
   The common hippopotamus (also called the hippo) once ranged over much of Europe, the British Isles and Africa, but it is now restricted to a portion of the African continent, north of Zululand. As civilization advances and more and more areas are settled, the hippo becomes a problem because of the damage it does to crops. As a result, it is mercilessly hunted and its numbers have been greatly reduced.
   The hippopotamus is the second largest land-living animal, by weight, in the world. The average specimen weighs about four tons; some individuals, as much as five. The massive head alone may weigh a ton. The animal is from twelve to fourteen feet in length and stands about four and a half feet at the shoulder. The huge, barrel-shaped body is supported by short, pillar-like legs. The hippo can open its huge mouth wider than any other animal, except the whales. The skin is very thick over most parts of the body, reaching a maximum thickness of two inches over some of the upper areas.

What is infantry?

   Ever since there have been organized armies, there have been infantry soldiers. Infantrymen are foot soldiers. Throughout the many wars of history, they have been in the thick of the fighting.
   Infantry soldiers carry their own weapons, ammunition, food, and other supplies. For centuries they have marched into battle. In modern times they have often been carried to the scene of action in trucks or planes. Most infantrymen in World War II, however, had to move on foot as soldiers have done for centuries.
   Foot soldiers must keep in good physical condition. They must be able to march many miles carrying many pounds of equipment. They must be able to live out of doors in all kinds of weather.
   Often in the past it has been said that the newest weapons would do away with the need for infantry soldiers in war. This was said when gunpowder was developed. It was said again when airplanes were developed, and again when the atom bomb came into use. But every nation that has an army still trains most of its men as foot soldiers.

Franz Grillparzer

   Franz Grillparzer (1791-1872) was an Austrian playwright, born in Vienna. After studying law, he entered the civil service (1813) and in 1832 was made director of archives. His first important play, Die Ahnfrau (1817), was a gloomy "fate tragedy" in the manner of the German romanticists. In his later Vforks—Sappho (1819), The Golden Fleece (1821), King Ottokar's Fortune and Fate (1825), The Waves of the Sea and of Love (1831), and The Dream of Life (1834)— he became increasingly realistic in his treatment of character and motivation, and abandoned the vague, derivative pessimism of his youth for a gospel of heroic renunciation and self-effacement. Among his other plays are Woe to Him Who Lies (1838), a serio-comic counterpart to Die Ahnfrau, and the posthumous tragedies The Quarrel of the Brothers in Hapsburg, The Jewess of Toledo, and Libussa.
   Now accepted as his country's greatest playwright, Grillparzer, during the greater part of his career, was the victim of unsympathetic audiences and of a general intellectual repression exemplified in the antagonism of the Austrian censors who banned his King Ottokar and later removed all his plays from the official repertory. However, during the liberal era that followed the Austrian Revolution he was nationally honored, being elected to the Academy of Sciences and the Austrian house of peers.

Arthur Rimbaud

   Arthur Rimbaud (1854-1891), was a French poet. He wrote his major poems during five tur­bulent years between the ages of 15 and 20. The poem that first won him recognition was "Le Bateau ivre" ("The Drunken Boat," 1871). Looking at a toy boat in a park pool, Rimbaud makes it sail in his imagination through luminous oceans and dazzling landscapes.
   Rimbaud's major collection of free verse and prose poems is Les Illuminations. It was published in 1886, long after the poet had abandoned literature to become a trader in Ethiopia. The work shows what the world might have looked like after the Deluge to a person not bound by preconceived habits and impressions. Une Saison en enfer (A Season in Hell, 1873), is an autobiographical account of the most tormented moment in Rimbaud's young life, when he lost faith in reality and madness hovered over him. Rimbaud freed himself of this torment, just as he freed himself of the emotional entanglement with poet Paul Verlaine, which had caused the anguish. Rimbaud and Verlaine were close friends and traveled together in 1873 and 1874.
   In a famous letter, Rimbaud stated his poetic prin­cipie: that the only real subject of poetry was the exploration of self through "a systematic derangement of all the senses"; the poet must search for a more dynamic use of language: "the alchemy of the word." Rimbaud was born in Charleville.

What is an "emission nebula"?

   While interstellar gas is generally cold, the gas near very hot stars becomes heated and ionized (electrically charged) by ultraviolet radiation given off by those stars. The glowing areas of ionized gas in the interstellar medium are called "emission nebulae." Two well-known examples of emission nebulae are the Lagoon nebula in the constellation Sagittarius, and the Orion nebula, visible through binoculars just south of the hunter's belt in the constellation of the same name. The Orion nebula is punctuated by dark patches of cosmic dust.

The ancient Tuatara

   The first European settlers in New Zealand dismissed the tuatara as just another lizard, of no particular interest for food or skin. But when scientists examined the two-pound creature more closely, they discovered that it was not really a lizard at all: The tuatara was the sole surviving member of the Sphenodons, reptiles that were contemporary with dinosaurs and thought to have been extinct for more than 180 million years.
  Virtually unchanged through nearly two million centuries, the tuatara has features that distinguish it from modern reptiles. Perhaps the most unusual is a third eye in a socket atop its head, unable to perceive images but sensitive to light and heat. Scientists believe it functions as a thermostat, telling the tuatara when it is time to get out of the sun. Though sluggish and slow to reproduce, the creature is a virtual ball of fire at low temperatures. Other reptiles become paralyzed when the mercury falls much below fifty degrees Fahrenheit. But the tuatara re­mains active down to forty-three degrees, which may explain why it survived climatic swings that extinguished other reptilian species.
   Easy prey to almost any mammalian predator, the tuatara's continued existence depends on isolation. They were completely exterminated on New Zealand's two main islands by 1850, wiped out by the rats and other animals that accompanied human settlers. But colonies totaling about 50,000 tuataras survive on small islands off the coast. In these protected outposts, the relic reptiles display remarkable longevity in their own right: Most of them live to an age of sixty or older.

What is a heron?

   A heron is a wading bird allied to the stork, but more closely akin to the bittern. There are several species in North America. The largest, the great blue heron, fifty inches high, breeds locally as far north as the Arctic Circle. It is incorrectly called the blue crane. The heron flies with head drawn in, the crane with neck stretched out to its full extent. The Gulf States, especially Florida and Louisiana, were the paradise of the smaller herons until the craze for plumes to adorn millinery caused the hunters of the South to slaughter these birds by the thousand. At least five species are found throughout the Mississippi Valley. The heron's nest is a platform of sticks in a bush or tree-top. Eggs three to six. The poet Lowell took delight in a colony of her­ons that nested in the tree-tops of Elmwood. Each heron has its own fishing ground, but the birds nest at night in "rookeries." Minnows, frogs, and reptiles are favorite food. Some species stand motionless watching for prey, which they transfix with a lightning-like stroke of the long sharp bills. Other species chase about noisily, trusting to catch the confused inhabitants of shallow water by rapid pursuit. In English literature we find frequent mention of taking the heron with a falcon. In England it was esteemed as a table bird, and was protected by game laws. The blue heron of Japan plays an important part in local art. It is of frequent occurrence in the decoration of screens, jars, vases, plaques, and fans.

The mackerel fish

   Mackerels include several species of fish. The common Atlantic mackerel has a deep-blue back, crossed by black stripes, and a light-colored lower body. Two other kinds are the Spanish mackerel and the golden spotted Pacific mackerel. All have oil-rich, tender flesh.
   Mackerels are related to tunas. Both are speedy swimmers because the rays of their broadly forked tails overlap their last vertebral bones, giving the tails rigid and powerful pro­pulsion. Each spring, great schools of mack­erel appear in shallow coastal waters, having moved in from unknown, deeper ocean areas. In these coastal banks, they lay their eggs and may be caught in early summer, just after spawning.

What does rhyme mean?

   Rhyme, also spelled rime, means echoing or repeating sounds in poetry. It usually occurs at the ends of lines:

       Marching along, fifty-score strong, 
       Great-hearted gentlemen singing this song. 

   This is an example of end-rhyme. Strong in the first line rhymes with song in the second. In addition, the first line has internal rhyme. Along rhymes with strong.
   In masculine rhyme, the end sounds of stressed syllables are repeated, as in strong and song. But in feminine rhyme, two or three syllables are echoed or repeated. For example, water and daughter, or dreamingly and seemingly.
   In perfect rhyme, the stressed vowel and the following sounds are repeated exactly. But different sorts of imperfect rhyme are often used: (1) rhyme in which the stressed vowels are not the same (as in forever and river); (2) rhyme in which the consonants following the vowels are different (as in goes and clothes); (3) rhyme in which the end-sound of a stressed syllable is repeated in an unstressed syllable (as in sing and dancing). In so-called eye-rhyme, the words only look as if they rhyme (as in brow and glow).
   Rhyme becomes a noticeable and often delightful feature when poetry is read aloud. Rhyme draws attention to the verses as they are read, and it gives form to the stanzas. It may also emphasize the meaning of the rhyming words.
   Rhyme is used only accidentally in prose, and it is not necessary in poetry. In some parts of the world, the art of poetry makes little or no use of rhyme. Present-day poets are free to use rhyme as they wish.

What is a molecular cloud?

   A molecular cloud is a cool area in the interstellar medium in which molecules are formed. While the substance formed in the greatest abundance is molecular hydrogen (H₂), about sixty different molecules have been detected in the largest clouds. Other examples of such molecules are those of carbon monoxide, water, and ammonia.

The Alien rabbits

Rabbits around a waterhole

   Quite another matter from evolution in isolation, as on an island, is the explosive growth of a species introduced into an alien but favorable environment in which normal controls, such as predators, are lacking. Australia has been experiencing the consequences of this for more than a century, ever since a colony of European wild rabbits was released there as an easy source of food and pelts. With no com-petition, the rabbits spread with such phenomenal rapidity—up to 70 miles per year—that they soon became a serious threat to the country's vast sheep-and cattle-grazing lands. Nothing could keep them in check, until, after World War II, the virus disease myxomatosis was introduced. It swept the rabbits like a scourge, with almost 100 percent fatalities at first, but eventually the rabbits developed an immunity to the virus. Now poisoned carrots are used.

What was the Griffon?

   The Griffon was the first sailing vessel on the upper Great Lakes, built in 1679 by La Salle. The great French explorer, then contemplating the establishment of a colony in the Illinois country and an exploration of the lower Mississippi River, constructed the ship above Niagara Falls to provide a transportation link between the western territory and the established French posts. In August, 1679, La Salle sailed his ship to Green Bay and then sent it back to Niagara laden with furs for the payment of his creditors. On the voyage both ship and crew disappeared, providing a mystery which has intrigued historians to the present day.

What is hibernation?

   Hibernation is the prolonged winter sleep of certain animals. This habit is due to the annual cold of winter and the scarcity of food. A number of warm-blooded animals hibernate, a few fishes and many reptiles. The squirrel, though he stores winter food, hibernates intermittently, coming out in the warmer weather. Prairie dogs behave in the same fashion. During hibernation the body does little of its ordinary work; the heart action is slight and the temperature low. Animals usually lose a third or more in weight. The bear is the best-known hibernator, though skunks, dormice, woodchucks, bats, and badgers seek permanent winter quarters, often in an old log or hollow tree. A few fishes bury themselves in mud at the bottom of the water; toads, frogs, lizards, snakes, and a few other reptiles crawl into the earth where the frost cannot penetrate.
   During the period of drought and heat in the tropics certain creatures go into a similar torpid state', there it is evidently caused by heat, instead of cold, plus lack of food.

Ancient views on the nature of fossils

   In early times, strange looking objects we now know to be fossils were picked up or found stuck to rocks by our ancestors. They believed that they had fallen from the sky, or that they were made inside the rocks, and even had magical properties. Later on, as the formation of rock became better understood, it was said that fossils were animals or plants which had turned into stone. They were given fanciful names, like 'snake-stones' for the curled up shells of ammonites, and 'swallow-stones' for the wing-like shells of brachiopods. The pointed shells of belemnites (meaning dart stones) were looked upon as thunderbolts shot from the sky. Fossil sponges were seen as stony mushrooms.
   How do fossils get into the rocks? During the late seventeenth century it was widely believed that the story of the Biblical Flood explained the drowning of many creatures which then turned into stone. One scientist even described a fossil skeleton as a man who had drowned in the Flood, and actually described him as homo deluvii testis the 'man who witnessed the flood'. It turned out to be a salamander.

What is strabismus?

   Strabismus is a common deformity, defined as a want of parallelism in the visual axes. It may be due to loss of power (paralysis or paresis) of one or more of the eye muscles, and this may depend on a merely local affection, or it may be a symptom of brain disease.

Great Sand Dunes National Monument

   Great Sand Dunes National Monument, which comprises 36,609.19 acres in South central Colorado, was established in 1932. The monument is situated along the western base of the Sangre de Cristo Range, between Mosca Pass on the south and the Crestone Needles on the north, in the San Luis Valley. The shifting sand dunes are the last remnants of a once vast prehistoric desert. Rising more than 1,500 feet, these are among the largest and highest dunes in the United States. Many legends and superstitions are associated with the region.

What is a flashlight?

The flashlight is a small portable electric lamp, operated by dry cells. It has a metal case, usually in the shape of a tube, but sometimes of rectangular or square design. It has two or three dry cells, connected in series, that give a voltage of 2.5 to 3.5 volts. It often has a lens in front of the bulb for directing the light produced by the tiny flashlight bulb. Pressure on a button, located on the side of the case, completes the electric circuit from the batteries to the filament of the bulb. The light can therefore be controlled by pressure of the thumb on this button. Flashlights were first produced in New York around 1900. By 1914 they had completely supplanted the oil lanterns that policemen used. Many flashlights now manufactured have devices for adjusting the beam; some can give a directional beam up to 100 yards.

What is inheritance tax?

   In social science, Inheritance Tax is a special tax levied on property at the death of the owner. As in the case of an income tax several terms require explanation. It applies to property inherited by law and to bequests. Direct inheritance rests on the relationship between parent and child. Property going to a grandparent, parent, child, or grandchild of the deceased comes under the designation. Property going to brother, sister, uncle, aunt, nephew, niece, or to their lineal descendants is considered collateral inheritance. Small estates are, as a rule, exempted from paying an inher­itance tax. A progressive tax is one the rate of which increases with the value of the inheritance. It is so graduated as to fall most heavily on the largest inheritances.

What does Grito de Dolores mean?

   Grito de Dolores is a Spanish phrase, literally translated to mean "the cry of Dolores." A group of patriots organized around the leadership of Miguel Gregorio Antonio Ignacio Hidalgo y Costilla, the curate of Dolores, to seize Spanish officials and set up a revolutionary government in Mexico. On Sept. 16, 1810, Hidalgo appealed to his revolutionary followers to march upon the Spanish authorities. They took as their slogan, "Long live our Lady of Guadalupe! Perish the government! Perish the Spaniards!" This was the "grito de Dolores," which became the slogan of the revolution in New Spain. This slogan is still cherished by Mexicans as an expression of their fight for independence.

What is a monotreme?

   A monotreme is an ani­mal belonging to the most primitive order of mammals—Monotremata. The duckbill, or platypus, and spiny anteater (Echidna) are the only members of the order. They both lay eggs and nurse their young.

platypus

Monotremes (Platypus and Echidna)

Echidna

The drum of the cockatoo

   The quiet of the December night is almost over. Soon the soft scratchings of tree rats, marsupial mice and possums will give way to a raucous dawn chorus punctuated by harsh screeches and shrill whistles, revealing the many birds that live in this rain forest in Cape York peninsula in northern Australia.
   By day, courting and nest-building birds fill the trees with their impressive displays and loud songs. Now and again a drumming sound can be heard. The drummer is a bird - a male palm cockatoo hitting the hollow trunk of a eucalyptus tree with a small stick held in his foot. Some animals use tools to crack nuts or poke out insects, but the drumstick is one of the most superior tools in the animal kingdom. The cockatoo makes it himself, breaking off a small branch with his strong beak, snipping it to length and removing any leaves.
   As he drums, the cockatoo pirouettes, watched by his female companion. Then, dropping the stick, he strokes her neck with his beak. When courting and nesting, cockatoos drum frequently. If two males dispute over a nest site in a tree hollow, the victor drums regularly to proclaim ownership. The female incubates the one egg, which hatches in about a month and the chick spends just over three months in the nest, fed on nuts, berries and seeds - especially the seeds of the palm-like pandanus.

Palm cockatoo

What is a dam?

   A dam is a wall across a stream. It holds back the water of the stream. It may make it spread out to form a big lake.
   It sounds much easier to build a wall across a stream than it is. Water is heavy. A tin can a foot wide, a foot long, and a foot deep would hold just a cubic foot of water. A cubic foot of water weighs about 62½ pounds. If the lid of such a can were lying at the bottom of a river 20 feet deep, and that is not at all deep for a river, the water on top of it would weigh more than half a ton. A dam to hold back a river has to be very strong. It has to be especially strong at the base, because there the pressure of the water it is holding back is greatest.
   People were not the first engineers to build dams. Beavers built them long before men did. But men have been building dams for several thousand years. The ancient Egyptians built dams along the Nile. The Babylonians built dams along the Tigris.
   Beavers build their dams of tree trunks and mud. The first dams men built were made of earth. Now most of them are made of concrete strengthened with steel.
   Beavers need ponds to build their homes in. Their dams make the water of streams spread out to form ponds. People build dams for several reasons. They may dam a tiny stream flowing in a gully to keep the stream from making the gully wider and deeper and spoiling much good land. They may dam a bigger stream to hold back the water after heavy rains and prevent floods. They may build a big dam to make an arti­ficial lake. The lake may furnish water for a city. It may furnish water for irrigation. At the same time it may provide miles of shore line, with chances for bathing and for boating.
   Another reason for building dams is to keep the water in a river deep enough for boats to travel on the river. Still another is to make an artificial waterfall. The falling water may be used to turn mill wheels or big generators for generating currents of electricity. Many dams serve more than one purpose.

What is idolatry?

   Idolatry is the worship of idols. An idol is usually a carved figure resembling the figure of a person. The ruder the people, the ruder its idols. There are two sorts of idol worship; the worship of the idol by reason of godlike qualities which it is believed to possess, and the worship of idols as a means of approaching the deity or deities they are supposed to represent. A statue of a noted man, on the other hand, is an entirely different thing. While the erection of the statue is, no doubt, an outgrowth of idolatry, the statue is erected merely as a mark of respect and to keep in mind one whose qualities commend him. Idolatry appears to have prevailed among all savage nations. Idols were set up in groves and in temples more or less elabo­rate.
   Although the Hebrews have given to the world a religion which is especially severe upon idolatry, the families of the Hebrew patriarchs themselves were not entirely free from idolatry or image worship. We learn that Rachel, Jacob's wife, had stolen "the images that were her father's," and that she put them in the camel's furniture and sat thereon that Laban might not find them. The idolatry of the surrounding people gave the prophets of Israel much trouble.
   The worship of idols has ever been accompanied by bowing down in front of them, making presents, and offering sacrifices.

Who was Giovanni Francesco Grimaldi?

Giovanni Francesco Grimaldi, called Il Bolognese, (1606—80) was an Italian architect, painter, and engraver, born in Bologna and studied under the Caracci and Albani. Grimaldi was employed by Cardinal Mazarin in Paris (1649-51) to decorate the Palais Mazarin (now Bibliothéque Nationale); but he spent the greater part of his life in Rome, where he practiced as architect and painted under the patronage of various popes. Pope Innocent X em­ployed him in his gallery at Monte Cavallo and in the Vatican. Grimaldi was twice president of the Academy of St. Luke, Rome. His best-known works include "Baptism of Christ," "The Washerwomen," "Landscapes," and "Scenes from the Old Testament."

The first animals in land

   The step from fish to amphibian' required limbs to walk with, and lungs for breathing. As a result amphibians emerged from the water, but were largely confined to the water's edge. So far as we know they laid their eggs in water, and these hatched into young with gills. Next came the reptiles, whose young also hatched from eggs. Since reptile eggs were covered with a shell they could be laid on land.

What is a slug?

   The slug is a terrestrial pulmonate gastropod or snail, in which the shell is represented by an internal horny plate overlying the respiratory cavity. The slugs are chiefly of two families, Limacidae and Arionidae, and most commonly are of the genus Limax. They are vegetable eaters and often ascend trees in search of food and then let themselves down by means of a mucous thread spun from a gland opening on the anterior edge of the foot. In Europe they ravage garden and field crops, but do little damage in the United States. Their general economy is that of the snails. The great gray slug, sometimes 4 inches long, is a European species, introduced into and now become common in eastern North America. A native American slug, which is very common in the United States, is Limax campestris, a small species of slug less than 1 inch long.

Grapefruit (Citrus × paradisi)

    Also called Pomelo, the grapefruit is the fruit of an important cultivated citrus tree belonging to the family Rutaceae. Grapefruit trees originated in the Far East as a sport of the shaddock. From there they were introduced into the United States, where they now are extensively cultivated in Florida, California, Texas, and Arizona. The trees are about the size of orange trees, reaching a height of from 20 to 40 feet. They have large oval leaves, pubescent twigs and thin, sharp spines. Their white flowers develop into globular fruits, each four to six inches in diameter. Like the orange, the grapefruit blossoms during March, April, or early May. The fruit is divided internally into from 10 to 12 segments, each composed of numerous juice sacs which yield the juice widely used as a beverage. Grapefruit trees require a hot, moist climate and deep, rich, well-drained soil. They are propagated by budding the desired plants on young stocks of the same or different varieties.

Albert Einstein (1878-1955)

   Scientists around the world are finding more and more proof of many of the very complicated ideas of Albert Einstein. These ideas are an attempt to explain the whole uni-verse. They helped make possible such things as television and the atomic bomb.
   Einstein was born in Ulm, Germany. When he was a year old, his family moved to Munich. Einstein later went to school there. He did very well in mathematics, but not in other subjects. At 15, he failed an examination to attend a university in Zurich, Switzerland. After another year of study he passed the examination.
   In 1905, when Einstein was only 26, four of his articles appeared in a German magazine. These articles set forth some of his important ideas, among them his Theory of Relativity. The ideas in these articles made him immediately famous.
   Einstein also became famous as a great believer in freedom. In 1933, after Hitler came to power in Germany, Einstein went to live in the United States. He continued his important studies there.
   There are many stories of Einstein's kindness to others. In 1952 a young girl in Los Angeles wrote asking him how to solve one of her arithmetic problems. Einstein took the time to send her a careful answer.

Who were the Incas?

   The Incas were an Indian people of South Amer­ica resembling in many respects the Aztecs of Mexico. They inhabited the Sierra re­gion of Bolivia and Peru, between the Cor­dilleras and the main range of the Andes. Their chief town was Cuzco. Not satisfied with the fertile plain, they terraced the slopes of the mountains and brought them under cultivation. They were governed by a succession of warlike chieftains. There were military trails, or possibly roads, which passed through mountain dingles, crossed the ranges and traversed bleak deserts. Pack trains of llamas were employed to bring home spoils. Tribute was levied on the tribes residing along the Pacific coast. The Inca builders possessed no little architectural skill. Immense stones were quarried and fitted together to build temples and palaces, displaying an ingenuity rivaling that of the Central American builders. The native artisans were workers in metals and produced pottery of a high order. The priests developed an elaborate system of sun worship. They required subject tribes to furnish "sun maidens" for sacrifice. The war power as well as the wealth of the Incas, had reached its height when the country was invaded by Pizarro. The descendants of the Incas still represent over fifty percent of the inhabitants of Peru. They are described as a slender, well knit people, capable of enduring fatigue. They have a fresh, olive complexion, with a smooth, soft skin. The hair is straight and black, the chin beardless, the nose aquiline. In their homes they are gentle and affectionate. They are industrious cultivators of the soil and make good shepherds, being gentle and patient with the animals.

What is a grant?

   In law, grant signified originally a transfer of incorporeal rights relating to land, which on account of their nature could not properly be conveyed by feoffment with livery of seisin. In this case, delivery of the deed in which the grant was embodied had the same effect as the actual or symbolical delivery of corporeal property. Now, however, the latter also is conveyed by deed of grant, feoffment with livery of seisin being obsolete, both in England and in the United States, where indeed it never had much footing.
   The phrase "grant of personalty" is commonly used for any transfer of chattels for valuable consideration, and includes conveyances by way of bargain and sale, bill of sale, and assignment.

Wolverine - facts

   The glutton or wolverine is a nocturnal, carnivorous animal related to the weasel, indigenous to the colder latitudes of the northern hemisphere. About the size of a bulldog, it bears shaggy brown fur. The wolverine is known for its rapaciousness and greed. it is extremely cunning, powerful, and pugnacious, stealing bait from traps. Difficult of capture, as it avoids men.

Horseshoe crab

   The Horseshoe Crab is a large crustacean that is also called king crab, and helmet crab. Four of the species inhabit the tropical regions of Eastern Asia. The American horseshoe crab is found on the eastern coast, from Maine to Mexico.
   It is a large animal, nearly two feet in length, this including the caudal spine. The female buries her eggs in the sand and leaves them until the young hatch, which requires from a month to six weeks. The horseshoe crab makes its home in the mud and sand of shallow, quiet bays and estuaries, but never on the outer rocky shores of the ocean. Its food is shellfish and worms, which it comes across as it burrows in the soft sand and mud. It is found in large numbers in Delaware Bay and on the coast of New Jersey. After it is dried it is often used as a fertilizar. In some tropical countries it is used as a food. The horseshoe crab is also called casserole fish, from is resemblance to a casserole.

Hypatia

   Hypatia was a Greek woman philosopher. She was born in Alexandria about 350 A. D. She became an instructor in the great school there, and is said to have possessed eloquence, as well as rare modesty and beauty. Her classroom was crowded with students over whom her lectures had great influence. In the factions that arose among the early Christians of Alexandria, Hypatia became the victim of a fanatical mob of monks. She was torn from her chariot, dragged to a Christian church, stripped, cut to pieces with oyster shells, and burned piecemeal. Charles Kingsley has made her the heroine of a historical novel, Hypatia.

Quail (bird)

   There are several types of quail known as mountain quail, valley quail, and Virginia partridge. Perhaps the most familiar name for quail is bob-white, a name the quail has earned because of the sound of its song. This song is heard most often before rain. Many people say the quail forecasts rain and is singing, "more wet, more wet."
   Quail are the size of plump robins. Their striped and mottled brown, black and white coloring is protective. They spend their lives in fields and farmlands searching for food of weed seeds and insects. They fly only on short flights and then only if suddenly frightened. About eighteen eggs are laid in ground nests. After twenty-four days, the fully-feathered babies hatch and immediately run about looking for food. Quail are sociable birds and always live together in groups called coveys. They sleep huddled in circles but always with heads pointed outward. Any unusual sound scatters them in all directions. Heavy snows and hunters are their enemies. Hunting this valuable game bird is restricted in most areas.

The Iliad and the Odyssey

Iliad and the Odyssey. These two poems are the most celebrated works in the literature of ancient Greece. By the Greeks, themselves, they were regarded as the final court of appeal on all questions pertaining to early history and religious doctrine. No man was educated who had not studied these poems. In the time of Socrates, there were Athenians who could repeat the whole of both poems. Each poem consists of twenty-four books. The Iliad has for its subject the Wrath of Achilles. Its action is confined to the tenth year of the Trojan War. The Odyssey deals with the Return of Ulysses from the Trojan War. These poems, either in parts or as complete wholes, were recited at various festivals. It is probable that the regulator of the poetical contests was finally responsible for reducing them to writing and arranging the various parts of the poem in order. Pisistratus is the one who is credited usually with this work. From the study of the poems themselves it would seem that the Iliad can scarcely have been the work of any one poet. The Odyssey is much more likely to have had a single author. The name of Homer has ever been mentioned as the author of both poems and will continue doubtless to be so used.

Gibbon, the smallest of the anthropoid apes

   The gibbon is the least specialized and the smallest of the four living types of anthropoid apes, is found in the Malay Península and its vicinity. The largest does not exceed three feet in height, and when standing upright, the animals can touch the ground with their fingers. The face of the gibbon is more like that of man than are those of the chimpanzee and gorilla, but the tusks are long and prominent. The hands and feet are long and slender. In disposition the gibbons are gentle, and, if captured young, are easily tamed. They are too delicate to stand a northern climate, but thrive well in captivity in India. The diet of the gibbon is very varied, fruits, leaves, shoots, insects, eggs, young birds, all being eagerly devoured. The genus Hylobates comprises several species. One of the best known gibbons is the hoolock (H. hoolock) of India. Another is the lar or wau-wau, H. lar, of Malaya. Both are remarkable for their powerful voices and the howling cries with which they salute the rising sun.

Gibbons

The ancestor of the horse — no bigger than a fox

   Through the evidence of fossilized bones that have survived through the ages, we have learned much of the ancestry and evolution of the horse. The animal evolved from Eohippus (the "Dawn Horse"), an animal no bigger than a fox, with four toes on its front feet and three on its hind feet. Several million years elapsed before our modern horse, as we know it today, developed from this ancestor. In this process, it lost all its toes but one, for the hoof of the modern horse was once a toe. This is true also of the close relatives of the horse — the donkey, the ass and the zebra. The small splint bones are all that remains of the other toes.
   The horse and its relatives were probably all much alike in the early ages, but today they are very different. The little Shetland pony, the Palomino, the magnificent Arabians and the lumbering draft horses — it is hard to believe that they came from one ancestor.

Are there really "killer" bees?

   The so-called "killer" bees are just very good at protecting themselves when bothered. They are the descendants of bees brought from Africa to South America as part of an effort to develop a stronger breed of honeybee. But before a breed could be developed, 26 queen bees escaped from the research hives.
   The sting of the Africanized "killer" bee is no different from that of any other honeybee. However, the Africanized bees are quicker to attack and more of them will join in an attack. For the bees to actually kill anything, a mass stinging involving hundreds of bees would have to take place.

Killer bee

Danube river

   "The Beautiful Blue Danube" is the name of a famous waltz written by Johann Strauss, who lived in Vienna, a big city on the Danube River. The Danube is not really bluer than other rivers. But in many places it is beautiful. It is, moreover, one of the most important rivers in the world.
   The Danube rises in the Black Forest in southern Germany. From there it flows southeast into the Black Sea. By air it is less than 1,000 miles from the place where the Danube rises to its mouth in the Black Sea. But the river wanders about so much that it is more than 1,700 miles long. Next to the Volga, it is the longest river in Europe. More than 300 branches flow into it. A canal connects it to the Rhine River.
   Eight different countries border the Dan­ube. The capitals of three of them are on the river. One is Vienna, the capital of Austria. The second is Budapest, the capi­tal of Hungary. The third is Belgrade, the capital of Yugoslavia.
   In places the Danube flows sleepily across level farmland. In one spot it spreads out so that it is like a broad lake. Many farrn villages are on its banks. In other places it rushes between steep cliffs. Old castles are perched on some of these cliffs. One gorge through which it passes in the mountains to the east of Belgrade is called the Iron Gate.
   For hundreds of years the Danube has been a great highway. Armies have marched along its valley. Boats have carried goods up and down it. Before World War II the flags of a dozen countries could be seen flying from the boats on the river. Now travel along it is less free than it was then.

The flamingo

   The flamingo is a graceful, rose-pink, aquatic bird with long neck and stiltlike legs. It is about 5 feet high. Often it balances on one leg with the other leg and the head buried in its plumage while its long neck is coiled on its breast and back. In flight the neck and legs are extended droopily, and its black flight feathers are conspicuous. Its call is a loud gooselike honking. The mollusks on which it feeds are strained from shallow muddy water by its boxlike bill, which it scoops back and forth.
   Flamingos nest in immense colonies on muddy flats. Each nest is a mud cone a few inches or a foot high. On the concave top one or two white eggs are brooded by the bird grotesquely perched with legs drawn up under it. Flamingos cannot breed successfully in areas accessible to predatory animals, and they are also disturbed by airplanes that fly low over the breeding grounds.
   The American flamingos, once abundant in Florida, are now seldom seen there except when displayed as captives in parks and tourist attractions. This species breeds in the Bahama Islands, South America, and the Galapagos Islands. The flamingo of Europe and Asia often winters in huge concentrations in Africa. In South America are two other species, nearly white but with scarlet wing covers.

Poppy seed

   Poppy seeds are tiny, deep blue or black seeds used in cooking. Hundreds of tiny seeds are found in each seed pod of the poppy.
   Although used by the Egyptians before 1500, it was the Dutch people who developed one species of the poppy plant which gives the walnut-flavored seed used today. The seeds do not contain narcotics.
   Poppy seeds are used in baking and flavoring vegetable dishes, salads, and sauces. A gray poppy seed called maw is found in commercial birdseed mixtures.

How dangerous are bears?

black bear

   Bears are adapted to catch prey and eat meat. Even species that now eat mainly plants still have sharp teeth, claws, and powerful muscles. They do not normally prey on humans, and they try to avoid people as much as possible. But when cornered, or surprised at close range, bears can attack and even kill people. Mothers with cubs and bears defending a meal can be the most dangerous.
   If you choose to camp or hike in an area where bears are known to live, there are several basic steps you can take to minimize the chances of a dangerous encounter. If you are hiking, travel in a group and talk, sing, or make other noises so any bears nearby will hear you coming and have time to move away. Keep to open areas where bears could see you from a distance. Stay away from sources of bear food, such as berries or carrion (dead animals). If you happen to see a bear in the distance, do not approach it; keep as much space between you and the bear as possible. When camping, store all food and toilet articles in sealed plastic bags and hang them 15 feet (4.5 meters) above the ground.

Polaris, the Pole Star

   Polaris is the star that is always almost directly above the North Pole. It is also called the Pole Star. For many years sailors and explorers in the Northern Hemi­sphere have used this star to find directions. When a person faces Polaris, he is facing true north. Polaris is sometimes called the North Star.
   Polaris is not one of the brightest stars in the sky. It can be found easily, however, with the help of the "pointer stars." The pointers are two stars in the Big Dipper that point to Polaris. They are the two stars that form the side of the dipper which is farthest from the handle. A line through these two stars leads to Polaris. Polaris is the last star in the handle of the Little Dip­per. The dippers are parts of the constella-tion Ursa Majar and Ursa Minor.
   Polaris cannot be seen at all in the Southern Hemisphere. In the Northern Hemisphere it is visible the year round. Polaris is not exactly above the North Pole. If it were, it would not seem to move at all. As the earth rotates, however, Polaris traces a very small circle around the celestial North Pole. The constellations near Polaris are called circumpolar constellations. They seem to move in a circle around Polaris.
   Besides helping to find directions, Polaris can tell a person in the Northern Hemis­phere what latitude he is in. The degree of the angle from the horizon to Polaris is about the same degree of latitude that the observer is írom tbe equatoi. At tiie equator this angle is zero for Polaris is on the hori­zon. At the North Pole, the angle is 90 de-grees. Polaris is directly overhead.
   Polaris has not always been the pole star. Many years ago, Thuban was the star used to find the north direction. The earth's axis changes its direction very slowly. It is moving away from Polaris now. In about 12,000 years Vega, a very bright star, will be the north star.

Porcelain

   Porcelain is the finest and most expensive type of pottery. It is usually white and translucent, meaning that light will shine through it.
   Porcelain is made of a mixture of kaolin and feldspar. These materials are finely-ground and washed and then mixed into a clay. The clay is then worked and kneaded. When the clay reaches the proper consistency, it is shaped into the desired piece either on a potter's wheel or in a mold. If the piece is to have a handle and spout, these are separately molded and attached to the piece with the clay. Then it is set aside to dry, after which it is baked in a kiln or oven at a comparatively low temperature. The baked piece is known as a biscuit. The biscuit is then dipped in glaze and again fired at a very high temperature.
   The secret of making porcelain was discovered in China. The earliest pieces date to about 900 A.D. Porcelain was introduced to Europe in the 15th century. Various Europeans tried unsuccessfully to duplicate this highly-prized chinaware. It wasn't until 1709 that Boettger, a chemist to the Elector of Saxony, succeeded in discovering the materials that compose porcelain.

What is flameproofing?

   Flameproofing is making a ma­terial more resistant to fire. Most combustible material can be chemically treated to reduce its ability to support flames, but nothing can be made completely fireproof. Material can be flameproofed in several ways. It can be basically changed by replacing combustible elements with noncombustible ones; it can be painted, coated, or dipped. These treatments may occur during manu­facture or after a material is already in use.
   Flameproofing of clothing and cloth decorations is a relatively simple process. The fabric to be treated should be soaked in 1 gallon of water in which 9 ounces of borax and 4 ounces of boric acid have been dissolved. It should then be wrung out by hand and dried on a clothes-line. Material so treated will remain flameproof for about a year; however, washing will remove the chemicals and will make it necessary to repeat the process. This treatment is suitable only for light fabrics; flameproofing of heavy fabrics, such as duck or canvas, should be done only by specialists. Wood al­ready in use may be painted with a fire-retardant paint.

When were horses first domesticated?

Horses were domesticated in the early Bronce Age
   Bronze Age deposits going back to about 2500 B.C. offer evidence in the form of bridle bits and other items of harness, of the domestication of horses. A wall drawing in southern Sweden, almost 4,000 years old, is one of the oldest representations found of the domestic horse in Europe. Babylonian records indicate that domestic horses were known there in 2300 B.C. These tamed animals belonged to rather primitive nomadic tribes. The domestic horse, however, did not become common in Babylonia until after 2000 B.C. It was introduced into Africa probably by the Hyksos, or Shepherd kings of the Middle East, who conquered Lower Egypt in the seventeenth century B.C. Subsequently, tame horses were bred throughout Africa and across southern Asia to Celebes.

When the first mammals appeared...

   When the first mammals appeared, dinosaurs were still the rulers of the Earth. Surrounded by huge, hungry, thunder-footed giants, many of the timid mammals—not much larger than rats and mice today—may have stayed in the shadows of the swamps or in the high branches of the soft-wood trees.

   To have seen them at any time in that first million years of their existence, no one would have thought that mammals would one day rule the Earth, as they do now. How has it come about?

   Mammals have several advantages over the earlier vertebrates. For one thing, they are warm-blooded; that is, they have built-in automatic temperature controls which keep their bodies at about the same temperature in either cold or warm weather. Most of them have furry coats to hold in their body heat in winter, and other ways to get rid of body heat in summer. The dinosaurs, lacking such body equipment, became so cold and sluggish in cold weather that they could not hunt food, defend themselves against enemies, or move to warmer areas.

Dancing

   Long ago, so long ago that no one knows when it was, people began to dance to express some of their feelings. They danced to show that they were happy about a big harvest. They danced to cele­brate a victory in war. They danced as a way of praying to their gods.
   Today there is dancing of many different kinds. Much of it is just for fun. But some kinds of dancing are true art. Most danc­ing is done to music. But there can be dancing without music.
   Folk dancing is usually done in groups. The people of many countries have their own folk dances. The square dances so many people enjoy are folk dances. Most folk dances are lively and gay.
   In social dancing two people dance together. Social dancing is sometimes called ballroom dancing. The waltz used to be the most popular of the ballroom dances. Some of the pleasantest music we hear was writ-ten for waltzing.
   Some dancing is done on the stage for other people to watch. This dancing takes much skill and practice. Tap dancing is this kind of dancing. So is acrobatic danc­ing of all kinds.
   Ballet is dancing to watch, too. A good ballet dancer must begin to learn dancing when he is very young. A ballet tells a story without any words to help.
   Many operas and musical shows use dances to help tell their stories. The costumes of the dancers are often beautiful.
   Dancing still has a part in some religions, especially in religions of the Far East. Priestesses in these religions may spend most of their lives in perfecting their dancing.

Deserts

   In the northern part of Chile several years may go by without a single drop of rain. There are not many parts of the world as dry as that. But large areas get very little rain or snow. We call such regions deserts.
In all deserts there is very little water for plants to use. But not all deserts are dry. In the Far North there are deserts even where there is much water in the soil. But a few inches below the top of the ground the water is always frozen. There are other deserts that have water, but it is too salty for plants to use..One such desert is near Great Salt Lake in Utah. But most people think of hot, dry deserts when they hear the word "desert." The Sahara in Africa is the world's largest hot, dry desert. The Gobi Desert in Asia is another very large one.
Such deserts usually have great stretches of bare sand. Winds pile up the sand into hills, or dunes. Scattered through the des­erts there may be oases, where trees and other plants grow. Springs or streams fed by rain or snow far away furnish the needed water for green oases.
   Night can be cold in a hot, dry desert. In the air there is very little water to act as a blanket, and the heat of the day escapes very fast as soon as the sun goes down. Scorching heat in the daytime and shivering cold at night is the rule.
   Dry deserts, oddly enough, can have bad floods. Any rain that falls is likely to come in heavy showers, the kind we call cloud-bursts. The rain cannot sink into the ground as fast as it falls. It rushes off into small streams and makes the streams overflow. Many travelers in a desert have been stopped by floods.
Often there are sandstorms in dry des­erts. There is nothing to break the wind as it blows over the great stretches of sand.
   Some plants and animals are fitted for living in deserts. Some desert plants have very long roots that can get water from deep in the ground

Frederick Barbarossa

   Frederick Barbarossa (1123?-1190), whose name means Frederick the Red-bearded, was one of the greatest of the Holy Roman emperors. He is also known as Frederick I. Frederick, a handsome, bold, and able man, became Holy Roman emperor in 1152. He faced two tasks. The first was to end a feud between two powerful German noble families, the Welfs and the Hohenstaufens, that had left Germany in chaos and to establish his authority there. The second was to assert his power over the Empire's possessions in northern Italy, or Lombardy. These pos­sessions were wealthy trading cities that had gradually gained independence during the previous years.

Some facts about gulls

   The gull is a family of aquatic birds closely allied to the tern. There are some fifty species. The gulls are found both on maritime and inland waters. They have webbed feet and rest much of the time on the water. When weary the gull tucks its head under its wing and sleeps, literally in the cradle of the deep, riding the waves like a ship. They feed chiefly on food floating on the surface. The ivory gull, pure white, seventeen inches long, spends much of its time amid the pack ice of Arctic seas. The kittiwake, so called from its cry, is a bird of the same size, with a blue-gray back and black-tipped primaries. In America it breeds from the St. Lawrence and northern Minnesota to the Arctic Ocean. The burgomaster is a large gull, twenty-eight inches long. The Amer­ican herring gull, pearl gray above and white beneath, with black wing marks, breeds from Maine, Minnesota, and Puget Sound northward, wintering along the Cen­tral American, the South Atlantic, and Gulf coasts. Large numbers migrate by way of the Mississippi Valley. Gulls nest in colonies, chiefly on the ground or on rocky shores. Flocks follow ocean-going steamers 1,000 miles from land. The gull is not a suspicious bird, whence the term, "gullible," is not infrequently applied to persons easily taken in by sharpers. The gull is a characteristic feature of the sea shore.

A surly heavyweight — the rhinoceros

   The rhinoceros is found today in the warm regions of Asia and Africa and also in Indonesia. This big, clumsy animal has a thick hide that makes it invulnerable to attack by even the largest flesh-eaters. The head, which is concave in front, is armed with one or two horns. These structures are outgrowths of the skin; they consist of compacted masses of hair. The horns continue to grow during the lifetime of the animal. The rhinoceros, or rhino as it is often called, is a plant-eater; it feeds on grasses and foliage of various kinds. It belongs to the family Rhinocerotidae, a name derived from the Greek and meaning "nose-horned animals."
   The rhinoceros has a most unusual partnership with a bird called the tick bird, which spends its time removing ticks and insects from the rhino's hide. Thus it provides food for itself and contributes to the comfort of its big companion. At the approach of an enemy such as man, the bird sounds a warning with loud screeching and much flapping of its wings. It is a most effective sentinel.

Flag of the United States

   The flag of the United States, called the Stars and Stripes, originated during the Revolutionary War and was one of the first emblems to symbolize the nationhood of a people. Although Betsy Ross is credited with designing the flag, it is more likely that it was designed by Francis Hopkinson, a member of the Continental Congress; Betsy Ross was only the seamstress. The original flag, with 13 stripes and 13 five-pointed stars, was adopted in 1777. From 1795 to 1818 the official flag of the United States contained 15 stars and 15 stripes, the two extra stripes having been added for Vermont and Kentucky, the first new states to be admitted to the Union. It was this 15-stripe flag that inspired Francis Scott Key to write "The Star-Spangled Banner." In 1818 Congress adopted the plan of keeping the 13 stripes and adding to the number of stars as new states joined the Union. The 49th and 50th stars were added July 4, 1959, and July 4, 1960, for the new states of Alaska and Hawaii. The flag has officially been changed 27 times since 1777. The exact proportions for the flag were established by Woodrow Wilson in an executive order in 1916.

Are Elephants Afraid of Mice?

   In contrast with the elephant's comparative freedom from large enemies is the long-standing belief that elephants are afraid of mice. Lupton, in his A Thousand Notable Things, published in 1595, wrote: 'Elephants of all other beasts do chiefly hate the mouse.' The idea still persists, helped no doubt by such stories as that of the elephant in a zoo found dead from a hemorrhage and with a mouse jammed in its trunk.
   In 1938 Francis G Benedict and Robert C Lee, American zoologists, tested zoo ele­phants with rats and mice in their hay, and by putting rats and mice in the elephants' house. The pachyderms showed no concern even when the rodents ran over their feet or climbed on their trunks. White mice were also put in the elephants' enclosure. again without result. There was, however, one moment when a rat ran over a piece of paper lying on the ground. The unfamiliar noise of rustling paper set the nearest elephant trumpeting and before long all the others were joining in the chorus.

American Black Bear - facts

• The American black bear (Ursus americanus) averages about 300 pounds (135 kilograms) in weight.
• The American black bear is found from Alaska and northern Canada to central Mexico.
• In spite of its name, the black bear appears in a variety of colors. Brown cubs are often born in the same litter with black ones.
• Although they all live in North America, American black bears are not closely related to brown bears and polar bears.
• Like bears everywhere, the American black bear fills up on many different kinds of food during the summer and fall. By the time cold weather comes, the bear is very fat and ready for a long winter's nap. It curls up in a den, which it digs in the ground, and goes to sleep. Eating nothing and living off its fat, the American black bear usually stays in this snug retreat until spring. On mild days it may awake and leave its den for short walks.
• Scientists used to disagree over whether the bear's winter sleep is true hibernation. A bear's body temperature does not drop close to freezing like most hibernators. However, during its inactive state the bear's heart rate decreases to only eight to ten beats a minute. Therefore, most scientists now consider American black bears to be hibernators.
• Black bears are omnivores, with their diets varying greatly depending on season and location.
• Many species of bears, such as this American black bear, give birth to their young while hibernating in a den during the cold winter months.
• Cubs are born in mid-winter while the mo­ther is in her den. Usually she has two cubs.
• Cubs of the American black bear usually stay with the mother until they are over a year old.
• American black bears often mark trees using their teeth and claws.

American black bears

The jaguarundi cat

   Jaguarundi (Puma yagouaroundi) is a peculiar-looking cat that lives in the Americas. It really does not look like a cat at all. It has a long neck, a weasel-shaped head, short ears, short and stubby legs, and a long tail. The jaguarundi stands about a foot high at the shoulder, and is from 3 (0,9 m) to 4 feet (1,20 m) long. It weighs from 20 (9 kg) to 30 (14 kg) pounds. Some jaguarundis are dark, grayish-brown or black and have no spots. Others are reddish-yellow. Jag­uarundis roam during the day, and feed on rodents, birds, and farm animals. They live from southern Arizona and Texas south through Mexico, Central Amer­ica, and South America.
   The jaguarundi is probably extinct in Texas. Its presence in Uruguay is uncertain.
In some Spanish speaking countries, the jaguarundi is also called leoncillo, which means little lion. Other Spanish common names for the jaguarundi include: "león brenero", "gato colorado", "gato moro", "onza", and "tigrillo".
   Scientific Classification. The jaguarundi belongs to the cat family, Felidae.
It is classified as genus Puma, species Puma yagouaroundi.

Jaguarundis

Damocles

   More than 2,000 years ago Dionysius the Elder was the ruler of the old Greek city of Syracuse. Damocles was a member of his court.
   Damocles talked a great deal about how lucky Dionysius was to be a ruler. At last Dionysius grew tired of hearing about his good fortune. He decided he would teach Damocles a lesson.
   Dionysius planned a royal banquet and gave Damocles the seat of honor. Damocles felt very well pleased with himself. But in the middle of the meal he happened to look up. Just above his head a very sharp sword hung by a single hair. If the hair should break, Damocles would be killed. He did not enjoy the rest of the dinner.
   Dionysius, of course, had ordered the sword hung above Damocles' head. He wanted Damocles to know that a ruler's life is not easy—that often his life is in danger. Today someone may say that the sword of Damocles is hanging over his head. He means that, because of his position, he fears misfortune ahead.

Who devised a new way for calculating the orbits of comets?

   German astronomer and physician Heinrich Wilhelm Matthaus Olbers (1758-1840) was a man of amazing energy and intellect. He was respected equally in both the med­ical and astronomical communities. As a physician, he was praised for his vaccination campaigns and for heroically treating people during several epidemics of cholera. As an astronomer, Olbers was best known for his discovery of five comets and for devising a new method of calculating their orbits. He discovered his first comet in 1780, at the age of twenty-two. The next year Olbers established his medical practice in Bremen and quickly drew a large clientele. He also set up an observatory in the second floor of his house, where he pointed telescopes out of two large bay Windows. He acquired a number of high-quality instruments and an extensive astronomical library. By the time of Olbers's death, his library held 4,361 items and was considered one of the best private collections in Europe.

Macaw - some facts

   Macaws are brightly-colored, long-tailed tropical birds found in the jungles of tropical and subtropical America. They belong to the parrot family and have the brilliant red, blue, yellow, and green feathers, loud screaming voices, and large arched bills typical of that group of birds.
   Macaws, who usually live in pairs, have long lives. Some have been known to live over one hundred years. They are temperamental birds with unusual abilities. When captured young, they may be taught to imitate words and obey commands. However, when captured as adult birds, macaws as often vicious and not easily trained. In the jungle, macaws eat palm fruit, seeds, and nuts which they crack with their large and powerful beaks. In captivity they are fed oats, canary seed, corn, crackers, sliced carrots, turnips, and tomatoes. One of the most beautiful macaws is the red and blue macaw, which is brilliantly colored in scarlet red, pale blue, and chrome yellow.

Some facts about spider monkeys

The spider monkey, or coaita, is any Amer­ican monkey of the genus Ateles or Ateleus, characterized by slenderness and agility. They frequent in small bands the tallest forest trees, moving swiftly by astonishing leaps, sprawling out like spiders, and catching by their perfectly prehensile tails. Most are black or nearly so, with the face shaded by projecting hair, which is either light or dark in color. They are mild, intelligent, and make interesting pets. Ten species of spider monkeys occur between southern Brazil and central Mexico, of which the Amazonian red-faced and the Mexican one are best known. Their food is mainly fruits and insects, and their flesh is eaten.

Ecuador

   This small South American country was named Ecuador for a good reason. The equator crosses it. And the Spanish word for equator is ecuador.
   The people of Ecuador speak Spanish. Some of them have only Spanish ancestors. But most people there are either Indian or part Spanish and part Indian. More than 400 years ago, Spaniards conquered the Indians living there. Spain ruled the land for about 300 years. But since 1830 Ecuador has been a free republic. It is as large as Florida and Georgia together. Between 14.5 and 15.5 million people live in Ecuador.
   The Andes Mountains run north and south through Ecuador. They are very high here. The land between them and the Pa­cific coast is low, wet, and always hot. So is the land east of them. And the mountains shut off eastern Ecuador from the coast.
   About three-fourths of Ecuador's people live in its mountains. Nearly all the rest of the population live in the coastal lowland. Important crops in the mountain valleys are wheat and potatoes. Quito, the capital, is a highland city very near the equator. Even though it is near the equator, every day there is like a cool spring day.
   Before Ecuador had railroads and airlines, its highland people were much shut off from the rest of the world. There were only mule and llama trains to carry loads between the high land and the low coast. Such travel was slow and hard.
   Most things that Ecuador sells to other countries come from its coastal lowland. From forests there come vegetable ivory, kapok, and balsa wood. Sugar cane, ba­nanas, coffee, and cacao are raised on plan­tations. From cacao beans, chocolate is made. Hats made in Ecuador from leaves of jipijapa palms, and called Panama hats, are worn in many lands.

What is a delta?

   A river almost always carries a load of sand and mud and pebbles. Many rivers carry their loads to the sea. When the water of a river strikes the sea, it is slowed up. In most cases it cannot carry its load far. It drops first the pebbles, then the sand, and then the mud. It may drop so much that a f an of land is built up at the mouth of the river.
   Such a fan of land is called a delta. It got its name because it is a little like the shape of the Greek letter called delta. Delta is the Greek letter from which our D came. It is shaped like this: Δ.
In the Old World one of the most famous deltas is the delta of the Nile. Much of the fertile land of Egypt is in this delta. The delta helped ancient Egypt become one of the cradles of civilization.
   In the United States there is a great delta at the mouth of the Mississippi River. The city of New Orleans is many miles north of this delta. But at one time the land where New Orleans stands was, scientists believe, a part of the Mississippi delta. Over many centuries, the river kept on bringing down millions of tons of mud and sand to it each year. The mouth of the river—and its delta —kept moving farther and farther south. As more years continue to go by, the delta of the Mississippi is almost sure to extend even farther out into the Gulf of Mexico than it does now.
   The Amazon, the Ganges, the Indus, and the Rhine are other rivers that have built up big deltas. Some rivers flow too swiftly to build a delta. The Congo is one.

Spartacus

Spartacus (d. 71 B.C.), Roman slave and gladiator, born in Thrace. He was the leader of a band of robbers and was captured and sold to a trainer of gladiators at Capua. In 73 B.C. he escaped with about seventy fol-lowers, composed of runaway gladiators and slaves, and took refuge in the crater of the volcano Yesuvius, where hordes of runaway slaves joined him. As leader of the great insurrection of Roman slaves. known as the Servile War or Gladiators' War, he over-powered a force sent against him from Cap­ua, routed an army of 3000 men under Gaius Claudius Pulcher, and passed from victory to victory; his forces overran s. Italy and sacked many of the cities of Campania, and are said to have numbered ultimately from 70,000 to 90,000. In 71 B.C. Marcus Licinius Crassus forced Spartacus and his fol-lowers into the narrow peninsula of Rhegium (now Reggio Calabria), from which, however, they escaped through the Roman lines. Finding all hope of victory at an end, Spar­tacus made a dash on the port of Brundisium (now Brindisi), hoping lo seize the shipping and cross the Adriatic Sea, but was foiled by Lucius Licinius Lucullus; thereupon he made a heroic stand against Crassus until he was slain. Upon his death the insurrection came to an end, and the captured rebels were crucified. A few who escaped to the north were destroyed by Pompey the Great, who was returning from Spain and who claimed great credit for his share in ending the insur­rection.

Plover facts

• Plovers are a family of birds. There are many different species, or kinds, of plovers. 
• All of the plovers are shorebirds. They live near water and are generally wading birds.
• Plovers usually have short bodies and short, thick necks. Their legs are rather long so they can wade in shallow water. Most types of plovers have three toes.
• Plovers make their nests on the ground. Almost always the females lay four spotted eggs that look like pebbles.
• Plovers migrate great distances. Some plovers spend the summer on the Arctic shores and fly to the Hawaiian islands or Central or South America during the cold winter weather. 
• The lapwing is a beautiful European plover.

Grunion fish

   Grunion is a smelt found off the coast of Cali­fornia. The grunion, Leuresthes tenuis, has remarkable breeding habits. On the second, third, and fourth nights after the full moon from March to June these fish come in with the high tides and flip onto the sandy beach. Each female, attended by a male, quickly deposits eggs, which are immediately fertilized and buried two to six inches in the sand. The fish then flip back into the water. In about two weeks, when the eggs are ready to hatch, they are washed out of the sand by the high tides accompanying the new moon. This cycle is an outstanding example of animal adaptation to lunar rhythms. 

Saint Francis Xavier

   Saint Francis Xavier (1506-1552), called the "Apostle of the Indies," was a Spanish Jesuit missionary, born in the castle of Xaviero, in Navarre. While attending the University of Paris he became acquainted with St. Ignatius of Loyola, the founder of the Society of Jesus, and in 1534 was one of the first seven to take the vows of that order. After completing his studies at the university he traveled to Venice, Italy, were he was ordained a priest in 1537. For the next three years he served as secretary to the Jesuits in Rome. Meanwhile, King John III of Portugal had decided to send a mission to his possessions in India. Francis Xavier was chosen for the task. Accompanied by the governor-designate of India, he sailed from Lisbon, Portugal, in 1541 and arrived at Goa, Portu-guese India, a year and a month later. He was successful in estab-lishing churches up and down the western coast of India, in the Malay Península, and in the Moluccas. Leaving other Jesuits in the mis-sions he had started, he went to Japan in 1549, where he was suc­cessful in gaining additional ad-herents. He stayed in Japan for about two years. Francis Xavier died while returning to Goa to organize a mission to China. He was beatified in the year 1619 and canon­ized in the year 1622.

Metabolism

   Me­tabolism is the process by which living things grow and repair their bodies and produce energy needed for life. Metabolism includes all the chemical changes that take place in the protoplasm of the cell. The changes which build up new protoplasm from simpler materials are called anabolic metab­olism. The changes which break down parts of the protoplasm are catabolic metabolism.

   All metabolic processes use food as the raw material for supplying energy and building new tissues. Foods include water, minerals, vitamins, carbohydrates (starches and sugars), proteins, and fats. The latter three are changed by digestion to simple sugar, amino acids, fatty acids, and glycogen, which can be assimilated. Glucose, fats and amino acids may be used to form a basic part of protoplasm, oxidized to give the body the heat and energy it needs, or stored for future use.