One fact about Apple Inc.

Did you know?

The Apple computer company was founded by Steve Jobs, Steve Wozniak and Ronald Wayne on April Fool's Day, 1976.

One fact about Ayrton Senna

Did you know?

Formula One driver Ayrton Senna was just 34 years old when he died in a crash at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix. Senna is the most recent driver to die while competing in Formula One.

Is the ocean really blue?

  A glass of ocean water looks clear and colorless, like a glass of drinking water. But if you stand on the deck of a ship and look about you, the water is sometimes blue and sometimes green. What makes the difference? Sunlight makes the difference. Sunlight has no particular color itself, but it is a combination of all the colors of the rainbow. When sunlight falls on the ocean where the water is deep and clear, only the blue color is reflected back to your eyes.
  What has happened when ocean water looks green? Billions of tiny plants and animals have grown in the water. They reflect green light. And so the sea looks green.

One fact about Hitler

Did you know?

The young painter, Adolf Hitler, was twice rejected (1907 and 1908) by the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna.

One fact about the Congo River

Did you know?

The Congo River, and not the Amazon, is the deepest river on the world, with measured depths in excess of 720 feet (220 m).

Napoleon Bonaparte

Few people in European history have so completely dominated their age as did Napoleon. Even after his defeat at Waterloo, Napoleon was a symbol of glory for the French. A painting showing him amid the defeats of 1812 (above) still suggests his grandeur and nobility.
Whether adored or hated, Napoleon aroused passionate opinions. For many, he was the ideal leader—calm and rational—as he was shown during his early days of power (left). The artist captured Napoleon's famous gesture of his hand tucked into his jacket and, above all, his look of intelligence. Other artists were not so complimentary. A cartoonist showed Napoleon and an English statesman carving the world (below). The caption reads: "The great globe itself is too small to satisfy such...appetite."

What is a Gremlin?

A gremlin, in aviation folklore, is an imaginary pixie-like creature that harasses airmen. Small, gnome like beings, those usually encountered have smooth, streamlined bodies with tapering heads that have the camber of a thick airfoil. They are generally described as wearing short frock coats, tights, and pointed shoes. There are innumerable species, how-ever, some with spade noses, for digging holes in airfields, some with hairy legs, and some especially adapted for existence at high altitudes. The female gremlin is usually called the fifinella, and the young are called widgets.

Spiritual kin of the brownies, pixies, and leprechauns, gremlins have been associated with many types of unfortunate occurrences in flying, especially ¡n military aircraft. They tickle the navigator, jam the machine guns, make the pilot believe his instruments are not reading right, fray wires and cables, keep the landing gear from going down (at the same time giving the aircrew the impression that it is), and stop engines at critical times. How some of these tricks are carried off is not always known, for some-times the guns and engines operate perfectly later. Some researchers find a clew to the origin of the gremlin legend in early flying at high altitudes, where oil would foam and bubble in the lines, vapor locks develop in fuel lines, and electrical devices operate improperly due to sparking effects in the rarefied atmosphere.

One fact about Ukraine

Did you know?

In Ukraine, you could find both zrazy and smetana on your dining table.

Why do we see the lighting before we hear thunder?

The light and sound of a thunderstorm have to travel to our eyes and ears. Light travels very fast. It goes about 186,000 miles (300,000 km) in just one second. That is seven times the distance around the world in the time it takes you to say your name. But sound travels more slowly. In one second it goes only about a fifth of a mile. That is about as long as four football fields laid end to end. Since light travels faster than sound, we usually see light­ning before we hear thunder. Only if the lightning strikes very close do we sense both at almost the same instant.

What is a digit?

   Digit is any one of the numerals O, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. Other numerals are formed by combinations of the ten digits. For example, the numeral 384 contains the digits 3, 8, and 4. The location of a digit in a numeral determines its value. In the numeral 111, for example, the first digit stands for 100, the second digit represents 10, and the third digit stands for 1. The ten digits are also commonly referred to as Arabic numerals.
   The term "digit" is sometimes used to refer to a number, rather than to the symbol for that number.

One fact about Saint Ambrose

Did you know?

St. Ambrose is the patron saint of beekeepers, orators and of geese.

What is Geodesy?

   Geodesy is the science that is concerned with determining the size and shape of the Earth and with mapping large areas of its surface. The principal methods used in geodesy include surveying by instruments, making astronomical observations, measuring the force of gravity at various points, and calculating the paths of artificial satellites.

Thonet Rocker

Thonet Rocker

  In the 1840's Michael Thonet, an Austrian cabinetmaker, invented a process that revolutionized furniture making. His bentwood rocker, shown here, may look familiar. Ones like it are still sold in stores today. Thonet's patent consisted of bending solid wood by steaming it and then clamping a thin strip of steel along one side This process eliminated complex jointing and carving. It meant that Thonet could hire local people, not expensive artisans, for his European factories. Men did the cutting and bending; women and children the sanding, polishing, and packing.
  Thus, well before the Industrial Revolution affected the rest of the furniture industry, Thonet's chairs, hat stands, and other pieces were being factory produced and marketed to the new middle class. By the end of the 1800's, Thonet's company was making 4,000 pieces of furniture a day—over one million a year—a triumph in mass production.

One fact about earthquakes

Did you know?

The United States experiences an average of two earthquakes a day.

Ajax (mythology)

   Ajax, in Greek legend, a hero of the Trojan War. He was a cousin of Achilles. At his birth Hercules wrapped him in a lion's skin, making him invulner­able to the arrows of his enemies, except in the armpit. He is represented in Ho­mer's Iliad as of colossal strength, "as un­moved by the shafts of his enemies as is an ass in a cornfield by the pelting of boys." Although noted for his size, strength, and courage, he was dull of intellect and slow of speech. During the siege of Troy he was a constant terror to the Trojans. Time and again he encountered Hector in single combat and came off vic­torious. He was accounted second only to the great Achilles. When Achilles was slain, his mother, Thetis, directed that his armor be given to him who was most de­serving. Ulysses, and Ajax were the two claimants for the prize. Ulyssses received it. In his despair Ajax lost his reason. He slew the sheep of the Greeks, believ­ing them to be men and enemies. Realiz­ing what he had done, shame drove him to suicide. Where his blood sank into the earth, there sprang up a flower which bore on its leaves the first two letters of Ajax's name, AI, which is also a Greek exclama­tion signifying "woe." This flower was the hyacinth. A similar story was told of a youth, Hyacinthus.

Natural Gas fuel

Natural gas is one of the most widely used fuels in the world. Its advantages include automatic delivery, perfect heat control, and freedom from dust, ashes, and smoke as well as from the labor and complicated machinery needed to handle solid or liquid fuels. Its principal disadvantage is that it is difficult to store under pressure and is therefore not a suitable fuel for automobiles, locomotives, ships, or airplanes.

Natural gas is composed principally of methane, the lightest of the hydrocarbons, but includes small quantities of propane and butane, also other hydrocarbons of higher molecular weight. Natural gas, obtained from wells in the same manner as petroleum, is found both in petroleum wells and in many wells that contain only gas.

«The Death of Marat» by David

Here we see the Jacobin leader Jean Paul Marat dying. Marat suffered from a painful skin disease and found relief by sitting in a warm bath. It was there that he was assassinated by Charlotte Corday. Convinced that Marat was destroying France, she determined to stab him as Brutus had stabbed the tyrant Caesar.
In the painting Marat holds a letter from Cor­day. Her knife lies on the floor. The drama of the scene is highlighted by the memorial inscription, "To Marat." This was not a conventional subject for a painting, but the artist, Jacques Louis David, succeeded in creating a moving and forceful work.
David was well known as a fervent Jacobin, who later became a loyal supporter of Napoleon. David's classic style reflects the revolutionary changes that took place in painting, just as they occurred in politics. The refined elegance of the French court disappeared and made way for the realistic concerns of the common people.

The Nine Days Queen of England

Lady Jane Grey (1537-1554), "the nine days" queen of England, was born in Bradgate, Leicester-shire. She was the granddaughter of Henry VII's younger daughter Mary and the daughter of Henry Grey and Lady Frances Brandon. She was well educated and when a little girl entered the service of Queen Catharine (Parr), sixth wife of Henry VIII. Her father allied himself to the Duke of Northumberland, Lord Protector of Edward VI, who compelled her to marry his fourth son, Lord Guilford Dudley, and on the death of Edward VI had her proclaimed queen in London (July 10, 1553). Meanwhile Mary, daughter of Henry VIII was on her way to London. Northumberland was too weak to oppose her, and the lord mayor and aldermen, obeying orders, pro­claimed Mary queen (July 19, 1553). Lady Jane and her husband were beheaded in the tower six months later.

What are antiseptics?

Antiseptics are chemical solutions that kill germs - bacteria - or stop them from multiplying. They are used to get rid of bacteria from the skin and things like clothing and furniture.

Antiseptics help to prevent diseases from spreading. Infections and infectious diseases are caused by germs. Germs include bacteria, viruses and fungi. But generally only bacteria are killed by antiseptics.

The air, all objects, and all animals, including human bodies, are full of germs. Most of these germs are harmless, and many are even useful to us. A few on the skin do not matter, but if the skin is scratched or cut, they can infect the wound. The body can fight harmful germs, but needs some help if there are too many. The cells inside our bodies are delicate and can be harmed by strong chemicals, so anti­septics are used only outside the body. Really strong antiseptics, that would even harm the skin, and can be used only on things like table tops and floors, are called disinfectants.

We owe our knowledge of infection to many men, including Joseph Lister, Louis Pasteur, Ignaz Semmelweis and Robert Koch.

Some antiseptics destroy germs. Others only stop them from growing and multiplying. One bacterium can multiply into one thousand bacteria in just three hours. Some types of germ produce hard cases round themselves, called spores. Antiseptics cannot kill germs enclosed in spores. An antiseptic does not sterilize, which means to kill absolutely all germs, but it can greatly reduce the number of germs.

Soap is a weak antiseptic. Surgeons scrub their nails, hands and arms thoroughly before performing an operation. There must be as few germs as possible in the operating room. Germs in an operation can cause disease and prevent proper healing.

In order to stop this happening, masks, gloves, swabs, sheets and surgical instruments are all sterilized, usually by heat. Modern surgery is carried out under essentially germ-free or 'aseptic' conditions. Not letting germs in at all is preferable to former times when the usual practice was to allow the germs in and then kill them with antiseptics.

Alcohol, in a 70 percent solution, is one anti­septic the doctor cleans your skin with before taking a blood sample, or giving an injection.

'Surgical spirit' is usually another kind of alcohol called isopropanol. Iodine and hydrogen peroxide are other well-known antiseptics. Joseph Lister, who actually introduced the use of antiseptics, used phenol (or carbolic acid as it was formerly called). Phenol itself is no longer used, but more effective compounds of the same type are to be found in many household anti­septics.

Germs can hide in dirt and debris, so the use of antiseptics is no substitute for cleanliness. It is more important to wash the dirt out of a wound than to treat it with antiseptic cream or solution. And an antiseptic mouthwash will probably not cure bad breath if your teeth are still covered with the sticky deposit called plaque in which germs hide. The best way to get rid of plaque is with a toothbrush.

One fact about Comet Halley

Did you know?

Halley's Comet visits Earth every 76 years.

Bathyscaph and bathysphere

A vehicle with which scientists explore the ocean deeps, sometimes several miles down where the pressure is enormous. It has enabled them to discover what kinds of life can survive there, where it is extremely cold and completely dark.
A bathyscaph has a steel-walled observation sphere with a port-hole of great strength to stand the pressures in the deep oceans. The observation sphere is attached to a float which is filled with petrel. As the petrol is lighter than the water, it provides buoyancy. The float also helps to keep the craft the right way up. Heavy ballast in the form of several tons of iron shot or pellets is used to take the craft down. When the vessel needs to come to the surface again, the ballast is released and the vessel floats up, helped by its petrol 'balloon'.

Religion in the ancient Egypt

Osiris

   The king, together with the gods whom Egyptian belief associated with him, stood at the pinnacle of Egyptian religion. Egypt thus offers another example of the political power of religion in organizing early societies. Other gods, who occupied lesser positions in Egyptian religion, appeared in a variety of forms, often as animals, and in origin were probably deities of the villages up and down the Nile. The Egyptians believed in a pleasant life after death, in which people would perform their usual tasks but with more success. The king, already a god, would become a greater god; soothsayers, priests, and administrators would hold even higher positions. For everyone who had lived a good life, there would be delights such as boating and duck hunting.
   In Egyptian mythology, the god who ruled over the dead was Osiris, originally a god of fertility. He had given Egypt its laws and taught the peo­ple how to prosper. But legend told that he was murdered by his treacherous brother and his body cut into fragments, which his loving wife as well as sister, Isis, reassembled, thus resurrecting him.
   Osiris' son, Horus, was identified with the king, who was considered the incarnation of Horus on earth and the center of the world.
   In harmony with their expectation of survival beyond death, the Egyptians made careful preparations for the physical needs of the afterlife, especially by placing favored possessions such as jewelry and wine cups into a tomb and embalming and making mummies of the dead. Statues sat in the tombs of kings as receptacles for their spirits in case their bodies should be destroyed.

One fact about the Sun

Did you know?

The coolest regions of the Sun's surface are 7,232 °F (4,000 °C).

What is a Stonecrop plant?

  Stonecrop is a common name for perennial herbs of the genus Sedum, belonging to the family Crassulaceae. The genus is native to temperate and cold regions of the North­ern Hemisphere, and contains many species cultivated for rock gardens and flower-bed borders. Two European species grown extensively in U.S. gardens are the mossy stonecrop, Sedum acre, a low, creeping evergreen with golden flowers, and the live-forever, or garden orpine, Sedum telephium, an erect perennial with cream-colored blossoms. Both plants spread from cultivation and are widely naturalized in North America.

Who was Strabo?

Strabo (63? B.C.—24? A.D.)

   Strabo was a Greek geographer and historian, born in Amasya in Pontus. He ascended the Nile with his friend Aelius Gallus about 24 B.C., and later spent many years at Rome. Little is known of the details of his life, but be claimed to have traveled much, from Armenia in the East to Sardinia in the West., and from the Euxine (Black) Sea on the North to the borders of Ethiopia in the South. Of Strabo's great historical work in 43 books, planned as a supplement to the history of Polybius, only a few fragments exist. His Geography (17 books), a detailed description of the world as it was known to the ancients, is almost entirely extant and is of value particularly for the sections which record the results of his own extensive observations.

One fact about water

Did you know?

An acute fear of water is one symptom of rabies.

Who was Hygeia?

Hygeia was the goddess of health in Greek mythology. She was the daughter of Aesculapius and was widely worshiped. At first, Hygeia was the only goddess who could cure disease. Later, she shared this power with other gods. The word hygiene comes from her name.

What is a Gear?

   A gear is a wheel with teeth designed to fit into the teeth of a similar wheel. Gears are used to transmit power from one section of a machine to another or from one machine to another. Often they also have the job of changing the direction of power transmission or of varying the speed of different parts of the machine, stepping it up or slowing it down. For example, if a large wheel with 32 teeth is meshed with a small wheel having only 16 teeth, the small wheel will have to revolve twice for every rotation of the large wheel. While the large wheel moves slowly, it forces the small wheel to turn rapidly, and not only is the power transmitted from one wheel to the next but also the speed of the moving parts is varied.
   The simplest form of gear is the spur gear, just a toothed wheel, or cog-wheel. When two spur gears of dif­ferent sizes, as in the example, are meshed, the smaller of the two gears is known as a pinion gear. Some other common types of gears are the bevel gear, the helical gear, and the worm gear. All these types are used in automobiles. The worm gear is used in the steering mechanism and in the speedometer. The worm gear is also sometimes used in the driving mechanism. However, the other types find more common application here. The pinion and bevel gears are found at the differential end of the drive shaft; helical gears are found in the differential and transmission systems. When the driver shifts gears, he slides one gearwheel backward or forward to mesh with one gearwheel on the countershaft. Since the several gears on this countershaft and the sliding gears each have a different number of teeth, shifting gears changes the ratio of engine speed to wheel speed.

One fact about Alaska

Did you know?

The "Beaver Roundup" is a spring celebration in Alaska.

André Ernest Modeste Grétry

  André Ernest Modeste Grétry (1741-1813) was a Belgian composer, born in Liège. Between the ages of 17 and 18 he wrote six symphonies and a Messe Solennelle which won him the patronage of Canon du Harlez. Through the canon's fmancial help Grétry was able to study music in Rome (1759-67), although he had to journey by foot from Belgium to Italy. After spending a year at Geneva teaching, Grétry arrived in París in 1768. His first months were filled with failures and hardship, but after he secured the patronage of Count Creutz, the Swedish ambassador, he made a huge success with his comic opera, Le Huron, and popularity followed every one of his succeeding 50 operas. Among them were Le tableau parlant (1769), La caravane du Claire (1783), and Richard Coeur de Lian (1784). Much of Grétry's unbroken success depended on his superficial melodic charm, but his music had no solid harmonic or orchestral foundation.

One fact about spacecrafts

Did you know?

It would take 30 to 40 years for a spacecraft to reach the planet Uranus.

How did the sound barrier change the shape of planes?

Slow-flying planes were never affected by air waves. As planes began to fly higher and faster, some pilots found that they encountered difficulties — the planes vibrated fiercely and the pilots couldn't operate the controls. What these pilots encountered was wave drag; that is, the piling-up of air in front of the plane — the sound barrier. Scientists and airmen studied this effect on planes and soon recognized what was happening.
To honor the man who first explored this subject scientifically, we measure the speed of a plane or rocket in Mach numbers. Aeronautical engineers use Mach 1 as equal to 680 miles per hour, the speed of sound at about 35,000 feet and higher, where the temperature is 50 °F or lower. Mach 2 equals twice the speed of sound or 1,360 miles per hour.
They found that the shock waves which caused wave drag were shaped like a cone. If the plane has long wings, it tends to spin more easily. As a result, jet planes, designed to fly faster than sound, have shorter wings set farther back along the sides of the body

Two facts about halophobia

Did you know?

1. Halophobia is the great fear of speaking in public.


2. In botany, halophobia is the inability of some plants to grow in salt-rich soil.

Dirty fuels

   Coal is the cheapest and most abundant energy source in the United States. However, coal is a dirty fuel. The smoke from burning coal contains large amounts of sulfur and carbon dioxide. Surface mining destroys the land environment. Drainage from surface mining pollutes water.
   Oil is the major source of gasoline and other liquid fuels used for transportation and heat. The United States must import 40 to 45 percent of its oil supply. Burning oil also adds pollutants to the atmosphere, such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, and other gases. The production and transportation of oil can also pollute the environment, especially if an oil spill occurs.
   Natural gas is the cleanest-burning fossil fuel. It generates fewer air pollutants and less carbon dioxide than other fossil fuels do. Gas is an efficient fuel and is used a great deal in industry, transportation, and power generation.

One fact about magnets

Did you know?

In the past it was believed that some magnets could cause statues to hang in mid air.

Eclipsing Variable Stars

  Algol, perhaps the best-known of the eclipsing binaries, was the first to be dis­covered by astronomers. Perhaps the ancients suspected that it was out of the ordinary; at any rate, the name "Algol," which means "the demon" in Arabic, may have referred to the bizarre quality of the supposed star's light, alternately becoming brighter and then dimming.

  It was an English deaf-mute, John Goodricke, who in the year 1783 first discovered the nature of Algol's fluctuations. He advanced the theory that what appeared to be a single star was really made up of two: a bright star and a fainter companion that eclipsed the bright star as it revolved around it. He noted that the light of Algol becomes dimmer at intervals of about two days and twenty-two hours. Goodricke's theory was later fully confirmed.
Much has been learned since his day about the two stars that make up the eclips­ing binary Algol. The brighter of the two — the primary star — has a diameter three times that of the Sun. Its companion is somewhat larger, but is fainter by three magnitudes. The centers of the two stars are about 13,000,000 miles apart. Their orbits are almost edgewise to the earth; they are inclined from the edgewise position by only 8° or so.

What is Germination?

   Germination, sprouting, the formation of a plantlet. Three conditions are requisite—moisture, warmth, and oxygen. Moisture softens the coverings of the seed, relaxes the embryo, and dissolves and renders available the plant food stored by nature in the seed. Air supplies oxygen. Warmth stimulates vital action, just how cannot be known until we know what life is. The temperature requisite to promote germination varies for different seeds. Some seeds sprout at the temperature of ice water; others require a temperature of 60 °F. to start. Wheat, the hardiest of our cereals, sprouts at a temperature of 36 °F. Experience has found that the germination of wheat, rye, oats, and flax goes forward most rapidly at a tempera­ture of from 77 to 87 °F., and that corn and pumpkin seeds sprout best at 92 to 101 °F. Corn that will sprout in three days at 65 °F. requires 11 days at 51 °F. Oats that sprout in two days at 65 °F. re­quire 7 days at a temperature of 41 °F. Many seeds, especially oily seeds like mustard may lie in the ground for years without sprouting; but, once started, it is desirable that the growth be not checked by a change of conditions, as a checked plantlet is likely to be a stunted plantlet.

Genre (art)

Genre, in art, is a term used to characterize paintings of everyday life. The subject of a genre painting is usually some cottage, village, or rural scene. Genre painting is not particularly modern. Pliny tells of a Grecian painter who won note during the reign of Alexander the Great by painting barbers, shoemakers, and the like at their work. Rembrandt in the Netherlands, Murillo in Spain, and Hogarth in London, were leaders of schools of painters that chose homely, everyday scenes. Of later artists noted for genre painting, Millais and Millet may be named. The reader should avoid the notion that genre paintings are inferior. Burns and Whittier chose everyday topics, but they are not humble poets. So, in the painter's art, genius glorifies the commonplace. 

What are Conjoined Twins?

Conjoined twins. Name generally applied to twins congenitally united in a manner not incompatible with life or activity. The name derived from the well-known twins Eng and Chang (1811-74), born of Chinese parents in Siam. Eng and Chan were joined together at the sternum by a thick, muscular ligament. Conjoined, or Siamese twins may be connected at the hips, buttocks, or other parts of their bodies and may have one or more organs in common. In some cases each separate organ in one twin is the mirror image of the same organ in the other. Joined twins are always of the same sex. Surgical separation is sometimes possible, but the operation is usually fatal to one of the twins. An operation was successfully performed in the 50's on twins who were joined near the base of the spine and shared the lower in­testinal tract.
A exceptional phenomenon, the occurrence is estimated to range from 1 in 50,000 births to 1 in 100,000 births, with a somewhat higher incidence in Southwest Asia and Africa.

Crude oil

   The formation of petroleum, or crude mineral oil, took place long ago when great seas covered most present-day land masses. As the seas came and went with the shifting of the earth's surface, organic materials from plants and animals were buried with sediments from oceans and rivers. These sediments were subjected to great pressure and bacterial action, thus slowly becoming petroleum.
   As a result of folding of the earth's crust. pockets or reservoirs of gas, oil, and salt water formed in the rock layers—valuable resources awaiting man's discovery. The earliest known use of petroleum was during Biblical times when surface-seeping pitch was used to seal the seams of ships. Often men dug for salt water to get edible salt. and found black oil instead. Knowing no use for the oil, the wells were abandoned.
In the mid-nineteenth century, a salt-maker, Samuel Kier of Pittsburgh, bottled and sold petroleum as medicine. Samples of this "rock oil" reached Professor Benjamin Silliman of Yale University in 1855. He analyzed it and separated out light-weight fractions that burned in lamps better than the commonly used sperm whale oil.
   The chief oil-producing countries are: The United States, Venezuela, Russia, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iraq, Indonesia, and Iran.
   The most important early product of oil was kerosene, and the lighter gasoline which would explode in kerosene lamps was thrown away. Today, the chief products are: natural gas, gasoline, kerosene, lubricating oil, fuel oils, asphalts, and oil coke.
   Much of the oil recovered from oil deposits today is found off shore along the sea coasts where special drilling rigs are set up.
   Crude oil recovered from the ground is separated in the gas-oil separator. Then it is sent through a network of pipelines throughout the country to be refined.

What is camping?

The only home that some people know even today is a tent. Most of us would not want to live in a tent for long. But every once in a while it is fun to go on a camping trip.

Living close to the outdoors is fun, especially for city people. But most people who go camping want something more than being out of doors. Some want to fish or to hunt. Some want to hike, ride horse-back, swim, or go canoeing.

There are many camp sites where camp­ing is made easy. Some campers, however, want to be entirely on their own. They may even want the feeling of really being in the wilderness.

History of Boats

Oceans and rivers are now highways. But in the days of our earliest ancestors they were not. A land separated from another by an ocean was as unreachable as if it had been on another planet. And before man learned to make boats, wide rivers were like high fences separating the land on the two banks. Boats gave early man a way of traveling on water. Later they came to be very important in the spread of civilization.
Some early man may have got the idea of a boat in this way: Standing on the edge of a river, he saw signs of good hunting on the other side. A log from a dead tree floated by. Perhaps, he thought, he could ride on the log. Perhaps if he kicked his feet he could steer the log across the river. He tried out his idea and it worked.

What is a Fable?

The Hare and the Tortoise

  A fable is a short story made up to teach a lesson. Most fables are about animals. In them animals talk.
  Some fables are centuries Ovid. Three very old ones are "The Hare and the Tortoise," 'The Shepherd Boy and the Wolf," and "The Fox and the Grapes."
Many of our common sayings come from fables. "Sour grapes" is one of them. It comes from the fable "The Fox and the Grapes." In the story a fox saw a bunch of grapes hanging from a vine. They looked ripe and good to eat. But they were rather high. He jumped and jumped, but he could not reach them. At last he gave up. As he went away he said, "Those grapes were sour anyway." Now we say, "Sour grapes!" when someone pretends he does not want something he tried to get but couldn't.
  Today writers do not write many fables. Comic strips and animated cartoons are taking their place.

What is a Gazetteer?

   A Gazetteer is a dictionary of places. It consists of an alphabetical listing of such political units as nations, states or provinces, counties, and cities. It also lists such geographical features as mountains, rivers, and lakes. An entry on a city, for example, would include information on its population and industries and on its political identification, that is, the county, state, and nation whiting which it is located. An old gazetteer is a good source of infor­mation about places as they were in the past.
   Originally, the term gazetteer was applied to the writer of a gazette or newspaper and did not come into its present usage until 1704 when Lawrence Echard published the Gazetteer's or Newsman's Interpreter, an encyclopedia of the features of the earth. The gazetteer developed in the 19th century when a handy geographical reference was greatly needed, and several attempts were made to publish complete information.

Who was Alexander Gretchaninov?

Alexander Gretchaninov, 1864-1956, was a Russian composer, born in Moscow and studied under Safonov and Rimsky-Korsakov. He lived in Paris from 1925 to 1939 and then came to America and settled in Detroit. Although he has composed symphonies, operas, and children's songs, he is best known for his sacred compositions. Gretchaninov was the first Russian composer to write music with instrumental accompaniment for the Russian Orthodox church services, a thing forbidden in that ritual. Demestvenna Liturguya (Domestic Liturgy) is regarded as his greatest work, and Missa Oecumenica (1935) his most significant Roman Catholic liturgical composition. The Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra gave the premiere performance of his Fifth Symphony in 1948.

Who was Pierre Gringore?

Pierre Gringore, called Gringoire by Victor Hugo, c. 1475—1539, was a French satiric poet and dramatist, born in Normandy; published Chasteau de labour (1499) and Chasteau d'amours, and became "Mere Sotte" of the theatrical company known as "Enfants sans Souci," and attacked Pope Julius II ín La chasse du cerf des cerfs. His best known works are Lejeu du Prince des Sois et de la mere Sotte, a play (1511); Le mystere de Saint Louis (c. 1528); and Les heures de Notre Dame. Gringore was an active opponent of Protestantism. His Oeuvres were published in 1858-77.

What is intoxication?

Intoxication, literally poisoning. The word is applied commonly to the condition produced by the excessive use of alcoholic liquors or of narcotics, such as opium of belladonna. A large quantity of liquor, especially if taken by one unaccustomed to its use may result in acute intoxication, which unless assistance is given promptly, will cause death in from thirty minutes to six hours. In sub-acute intoxication, the first effect of the liquor is to increase the circulation of the blood, as a result of which all the functions of both body and mind seem to be exercised with increased freedom. Bluntness of the sense of touch is likely to follow, with dizziness, and that loss of muscular control which leads to staggering. Temperamental peculiarities and faults of character are manifested with no apparent effort at their control. The mind seems to lose its power of associating ideas. The eyes see double sometimes and the hearing is affected. A prolonged sleep or stupor follows. On awaking, headache, nausea and mental depression are common. These symptoms vary in different individ­uáis, and with the form and amount of alcohol taken. If immoderate indulgence in liquor be continued, the result is a case of chronic alcoholism in which nearly every organ of the body is affected. As alcohol is taken directly into the circulation, irritation is produced wherever it comes in con-tact with any tissue. If this irritation con­tinúes, new cells of connective tissue are formed. which lead to various diseases and disturbances in the functions of the various organs in which such growths occur. The heart, liver. and stomach suffer most perhaps. but in general the bodily strength decreases, there is loss of memory and will-power. and the result is mental and moral deterioration.

What is a hydraulic ram?

   The Hydraulic Ram is an engine for raising a small amount of water to a higher level by suddenly arresting the flow of a larger stream. An air chamber and valves are essential parts of the machine. These rams may be used when the source of water is below the level of the place where it is required. From the fact that but a small part of the water is really elevated, the machine is uneconomical, and can be used to advantage only when the supply of water is large compared with the amount needed.

Who was Karl Gauss?

K. Gauss (1777-1855)

Karl Gauss was a German mathematician and astronomer, born in Brunswick. He was educated at the University of Gottingen and from 1807 until his death was direc­tor of the Gottingen Observatory. Gauss brought forth the method of least squares, discovered that a ar­ele can be divided into 17 equal ares by means of elementary geometry, invented a new method for calculating the positions of heavenly bodies, and became known as the founder of the mathematical theory of electricity.

What is pleurisy and what are the symptoms?

Pleurisy is an inflammatory disease of the pleura. The pleura is the serous membrane that lines the chest cavity, and each lung has a separate pleura. Pleurisy is generally caused by a cold, or by another disease such as cancer, pneu­monia, or tuberculosis.

SYMPTOMS
The symptoms of pleurisy are a dry cough and sharp pain. Rasping sounds may be heard in the chest. Breathing becomes difficult, resulting in short gasps. There is weakness, headache, a rapid pulse, and loss of appetite. Pus in the pleural cavity is very dangerous and is indicated by chills; fever, and a changing temperature. Rest and inactivity are required for relief. Antibiotics may be prescribed as medication.

Who was Isis?

Isis, the chief goddess of the Egyptians. She was the sister and wife of Osiris, their chief deity. Osiris represented the sun. Isis represented the moon. The cow and the lotus were sacred to her. The figure of Isis, oftentimes adorned with the horns of a cow, appears frequently in Egyptian art, especially in the adornment of cave temples and elsewhere.

Isis, the main goddess of the Egyptians

The emperor of all the Mongols

   Genghis Khan (1162-1227), emperor of all the Mongols, was one of the most famous conquerors in history. His father was chieftain over some of the nomadic Mongol tribes that roamed the country of what is today Outer Mongolia.
   At his father's death Temujin (the orig­inal name of Genghis Khan) was only 12 years old, and the tribes refused to obey him. He therefore went to live with the neighboring tribes, among whom he rose to power. His followers proclaimed him ruler, or khan, in 1196. He took the name Genghis, meaning "very mighty," and proceeded to conquer the tribes of eastern Mongolia.
   After western Mongolia had also fallen under his rule, Genghis was pro­claimed in 1206 great khan of the Mongols and chose the city of Kara-koram as his capital. By this time he had a powerful army, skillful on horseback and with the bow and arrow. With this army, used to great hardships and to iron disci­pline, he conquered northern China and occupied Peking. Then his armies conquered Kara-khitai, the large Turkish empire in central Asia. Before he was slain in northern China in 1227, Genghis Khan ruled an empire stretching from the Pa­cific Ocean to the Ural Mountains and the Persian Gulf.
   Genghis Khan was a brilliant military leader, with the fastest cavalry in the world at his disposal. He was cruel and ordered whole people who resisted him to be slain or to be enslaved. But he respected learning and appointed some Turks and Chinese to high positions in the administration of the empire. He seems to have favored the Taoist religion instead of Buddhism.

Richard Strauss

R. Strauss (1864-1949)

   Richard Strauss was a German composer and conductor, born in Munich, Bavaria, and trained privately and at the University of Munich. In 1885 he became as­sistant conductor at Meiningen, in Thuringia, under the German conductor and composer Hans von Bülow (1830-94); he became chief conductor upon von Bülow's retirement in November of the same year. From 1886 to 1889 Strauss was assistant conductor at the Court Opera in Munich. Dissatisfaction with his prospects for advancement, however, impelled him to accept the position of court conductor at Weimar, where he remained until 1894. The reputation which he earned there, both as conductor and com­poser, resulted in his being reengaged in 1894 as chief conductor of the Munich Court Opera. In 1898 he signed a contract as con­ductor with the Royal Opera of Berlin. Lib­eral leaves of absence enabled him to make extensive and highly successful concert tours of Europe and also the United States. In 1919, Strauss and the German conductor Franz Schalk (1863-1931) assumed the joint directorship of the Vienna State Opera, retaining the post until 1924. Thereafter he de­voted himself entirely to composition. He served as honorary head of the music department of the Third Reich from 1933 to 1935, and remained in Germany throughout World War II.